In Europe , between 1400 and1780, approximately 100,000 people, mainly women,, were charged with witchcraft. Around half of those people were executed, killings motivated by a constellation beliefs about women and truth, as well as evil and magic.
The witch hunts would not have been as widespread without the media machine that made it possible. An industry of printed guides that taught readers to locate and eliminate witches.
I teach a course on philosophy and witchcraft where we examine the religious, socio-economic and philosophical contexts that shaped early modern witchhunts in Europe, colonial America, and elsewhere. I teach and do research on the ethics of digital technology.
The fields aren’t so different as you might think. The parallels between spreading false information during the witch-hunting period, and today’s online ecosystem of information are striking and instructive.
Birth of an empire in publishing
Around 1440, the printing press was invented. It revolutionized the way information spread, creating a modern-day version of a conspiracy theory.
In 1486, two Dominican Friars published ” Malleus Maleficarum ” or “Hammer of Witches.” This book had three main claims that became the basis of the witch hunts.
It describes women as being morally weak, and thus more likely to be witches. It also ties witchcraft and sexuality together. According to the authors, women’s sexual insatiability is a factor that leads them into witchcraft. Third, the authors claim that witchcraft is a pact made with Satan, who tempts witches by offering them sexual pleasures like orgies. The authors then give instructions on how to torture and punish witches after establishing the “facts”.
The book was a success. The book was published in more than twenty editions, and translated into many languages. While “Malleus Maleficarum”, was not the only text in its category but it had a huge influence.
Before 1500, witchhunts were not common in Europe. After the “Malleus Maleficarum,” witch hunts gained momentum. In fact, the new printings of coincide with a surge in witch-hunting across Central Europe. It wasn’t only the content that made this book so popular; it was also its credibility. The Pope Innocent had just confirmed the existence of witches, and granted authority to inquisitors for them to persecute. This gave the book more authority.
The “Malleus Maleficarum” repackaged and recycled ideas about witches that were found in earlier texts and folklore, such as “facts” like the one that said witches can use spells to vanish penises. This “source” was then used in future works. It was quoted in many later manuals, and was woven into civic laws.
The book’s popularity and influence helped to create , a new area of expertise. A demonologist is an expert in the evil activities of witches. Demonologists began to repeat each other’s false claims, creating an echo chamber. This formalized the identity of the witch: she was dangerous and decidedly female.
Skeptics take back their fight
Not everyone was a believer in the witch hysteria. Dissenting voices began to emerge as early as 1563. However, they did not argue that witches were not real. They questioned instead the methods used to detect and prosecute witches.
Johann Weyer, a Dutch physician, argued that women accused as witches were suffering melancholia and required medical treatment rather than execution. In 1580 French philosopher Michel de Montaigne visited witches in prison and concluded that they needed ” Hellebore instead of hemlock“. Medicine rather than poison.
They also pointed out something even more sinister: the moral responsibility that people who spread the stories bear. John Webster was an English chaplain and physician who wrote a harsh critique in 1677. He claimed that the majority of demonologists’ works were simply copy-and-paste jobs, where authors repeated each other’s lies. Demonologists failed to provide any original analysis, evidence or witnesses. They did not meet the standards for good scholarship.
This failure cost a lot. Montaigne said that “the witches in my neighborhood are at mortal risk every time a new author confirms the truth of their visions.”
Demonologists enjoyed the social and politic status that came with their popularity. , the booksellers and printers, or what we call today publishers, reaped the majority of the financial benefits.
In Europe, witch hunts dwindled in the 1700s. The end of the witch hunts was largely due to doubts about the standard of evidence and the growing awareness that the accused “witches”, if they were indeed deluded, may have been. The voices of skeptics were heard.
The psychology of viral lies
They understood that certain people were more susceptible than others to believe extraordinary claims. The researchers identified “melancholics”, people who are predisposed to anxiety or fantastical thinking.
Nicolas Malebranche was a 17th century French philosopher who believed that imagination has the power to convince people of things which are not true. This includes fear of invisible and malevolent forces. He said that people believe “extravagant stories of witchcraft” as true histories, increasing their credulity. The more stories and the more often they are told, , the greater influence has on imagination . Repetition was a false confirmation.
Malebranche wrote that “in a short time, they wouldn’t be sorcerers if they stopped punishing them (women charged with witchcraft).”
Researchers have found similar patterns of how false information spreads on the internet. This is done to confuse people or manipulate them. We are more likely to trust stories if they feel familiar. This is because we can relate to the content. Likes, shares, and retweets become proxies for the truth. Content designed to shock, outrage or incite people spreads fast.
The social media channels offer fertile ground. The algorithms of companies are geared towards maximizing engagement. A post that gets likes, comments, and shares will therefore be seen by more people. The more people who view a post, the more likely they are to engage with it.
Keystroke Speed
The early modern skeptics did not criticize those who believed that witches existed, but those who spread these stories. They were silent, however, about the people who were the final arbiters of what was printed and spread: the publishers.
Social media platforms are used by 54% of American adults to get news. Like the printing presses in olden days, these platforms don’t simply distribute information. They influence our beliefs through algorithms which prioritize engagement above accuracy. The more we repeat a story, the higher it is placed.
The witch hunts are a reminder that delusion, and misinformation is a constant feature of human society. This is especially true during times of technological change or social upheaval. The early skeptics’ questions are still relevant as we navigate through our own information revolution: Who is responsible when false information causes real harm? How can we protect those most vulnerable against those who exploit them by profiting from their confusion and fear?
Understanding how societies in the past dealt with similar issues is not just an academic exercise. It’s vital.
Julie Walsh receives funding through the National Science Foundation
